Dells Generic Strategy Business Essay

dingles generic wine wine Strategy Business EssayIntroduction dingle Computer Corporation was started in 1984 by Michael dingle, who had the simplistic view that individual(a)(prenominal) electronic calculating machines could be built and sold betokenly to customers (Suite 101, 2009) alongside this ideology that dell, could trump understand consumer contend and efficiently provide the closely efficacious calculation solution to skip those needs (Information Systems Management, unknown date). So dells mission is to beThe most successful computer association in the world at exileing the best customer experience in grocerys we serve (Dell, 2010(a)).In doing so, Dell posture to meet customer expectations ofHighest qualityLeading technologyCompetitive priceIndividual and company accountabilityBest-in-class service and supportFlexible customization mightSuperior incorporated citizenshipFinancial stability(About, 2010)So, Dell, since the last 26 years, has move a mas s producer of standardised products and has evolved dramatically since they were first create in 1984. The company, at first, merely took dos on the ph i to assist discharge their policy of building custom built personal computers (PCs) (Dell,2010, (b)).However, the company hence gained first-m all over advantage in the mid 1990s, when it became unity of the first companies to offer PCs online (Chaffey, 2007, p.239).In 2008, Dell was star of the trade leaders in the worldwide PC market place with gross gross revenue around US$41 billion (lynch, 2009, p.789) and since their evolution, Dell, have alter their product range and scope from small desktop computers to large master of ceremonies computers-to individuals, businesses and other organisations (Schneider, 2006, p.108).In 2009 in they owned a global market sh be of 12.4% in the number of PCs shipped worldwide, with just Hewlett Packard (21%)and genus genus Acer (13.4%) preceding them during this stop (Bloomberg, 2010 ). Notably, this was the first time Dell had fell behind Acer in the second spot as the worlds largest computer-maker and this was primarily due to Acer producing cheap net books and other inexpensive home computers at a trim operating margin (Bloomberg, 2010).However, recently, in 2010,they did move back into second set up in the global PC manufacturing market ahead of Acer precisely only slightly as they had a 12.8% market serving compared to Acers 12.4% (Afterdawn, 2010).So this level of competition has been intense since 2006 as companies such as HP and Acer were vastly reducing the bell of their global ne twork suppliers, which forced Dell to enter into new global markets such as in china ( George and Jones, 2009,p.195). However, Dell, see their strengths in the commercial and corporate market (Techeye, 2010), as this is cool it their dominant market, even though home consumers are an ever maturement chemical element of their outline. So, Dells competitors now includ e both(prenominal), domestic manufacturers of PCs such as apple and HP as well as, overseas competitors such as Sony, Acer and Lenovo in Asia (Jones George, 2009, p.195).This essay will therefore explore Dells generic crisscross strategy and the activities which constitute this strategy. This will past lead to a appraise drawing string analysis of the company, which dismiss be manikind as a tool to emphasise the linkage between the primary and support activities which are applyd to create respect in spite of appearance Dell. This will then pave show how these added values create a distinctive competence inwardly Dell, which, overall, have lead to competitive advantage since the company began to aggressively vacillation its cost and prices to increase their global market share in the 2000s (Jones and George, 2009,p.195).Dells generic StrategyMichael gatekeepers Generic Strategy Model (1980) was created to specify how companies use generic business strategies, to gain a competitive advantage over their competitors. This encompasses how companies use cost reduction and/or differentiation within their product and serve to appeal to a busy great or narrow discussion section of the market, in rear to gain this competitive advantage.Overall Dell, operate a hybrid broad focus strategy and this can derived be from Porters Generic Strategy Model obtained from the Mind Tools website (2010)In order to understand Dells generic strategy we must explain the different segments of this modelFirstly, cost leaders occurs when a company achieves lower costs than its rivals and competes across a broad range of segment (Ogden and Wersun, 2007, p.282). On the other hand, differentiation is when a company has a range of clearly differentiated products which appeal to different segments of the market (Ogden and Wersun, 2007, p.282).However, Dell, appear to operate on a hybrid strategy, similarly to the c fitted car manufacturing pains, which incorporates both th e cost leadership and differentiation elements of Porters model. A hybrid strategy, overall, seeks simultaneously to achieve differentiation and a price lower than that of competitors (Johnson et al, 2008, p.230). So, Dell, use both of these aspects, but in a broad focus since they offer their products on a wide scale, as explained earlier, as they offer both corporate and commercial solutions to small, medium and large sized enterprises but also forgather the needs of users within different spectrums such as within the familiar sector right down to the home user. This is explained by on their homepage when they advanceFor more(prenominal) than 26 years, Dell has empowered countries, communities, customers and commonwealth everywhere to use technology to realize their dreams. Customers trust us to deliver technology solutions that help them do and achieve more, whether theyre at home, work, school or anywhere in their world (Dell, 2010(c)).So the focus is very much broad, but Dell has this direct business model which involves gathering customer needs and tailor that solution to meet their requirements For instance, Premier Dell.com offers technological solutions to businesses which helps them manage all phases of computer ownership such as buy, asset management and product support(Chaffey, 2007, p.97)So their broad direct focus helps simultaneously create both cost leadership and differentiation strategies and helps explain why, perhaps they have been one of the most successful PC manufacturing corporations in the world.So how does Dell use both of these strategic elements of Porters model?Firstly, with cost leadership, Dells direct business model involves purchasing standardised components which ultimately minimises the need for expensive research and development and gross revenue are then made direct over the Internet to customers (Ogden Wersun, 2007) indeed eliminating retailers that add necessary time and cost, or/who can diminish Dells in disuni teigence of customer expectations. (Information Systems Management, unknown date). So this results in low costs and is a very aggressive pricing policy which helps gain market share from any competitor whom has taken their eye of the ball and has let their costs increase (Ogden Wersun, 2007, p.60). Consequently, Dell have lower manufacturing and distribution costs than most of their competitors, thus they have achieved a cost leadership strategy over their rivals.However, a nonher school of though can equally argue that within Dells generic strategy lies a differentiation strategy. This also exists within their direct business model as consumers can design their own computers which tailor their own unique needs and specifications. This is differentiation as Dell not only offers differentiated products to specific users, but also to specific markets(small, medium, large-sized, exoteric sector, businesses, etc), thus reinstating this concept of the company having a broad focus. Henc e, Dells direct sales model has allowed it to differentiate its PC products by allowing customers to design their own computer system and offering complementary services such as online customer support, three-year-on-site warranty, web hosting, installation and configuration of customers hardware and software (Grant, R.M, 2005, p272).Furthermore, Timmers (1999, p.227) stated how Dell, on their website, dont merely offer the best PC offer of the month speak to but rather an approach which offers discounts for large purchases which are tailored to that particular individual or company, as well as having support which is customised to users needs (Dell, 2010 (c)). However this whole concept could be challenged as many people would be reluctant to buy a Dell PC without interrogation it in store first, however this argument becomes less relevant as more and more of us know people who have bought a Dell computer, since we can inspect theirs (Ogden Wersun, 2007, p.61).Notably, Schneider (2005,p.305) also argued that because Dell made most of their sales online, they often unintentionally leftover themselves exposed to the laws and ethics of the banking industry and in this case, in1999, they had offered monthly payment setups to customers without disclosing the full details of the lease image associated with this payment scheme. So, this pinpoints how despite Dell having a successful online strategy, they could be left vulnerable to changes in the legal environment, which could clash with their online customisation policy. Nevertheless, Dells hybrid strategy was a clever one not only did it conjunctively produce cost effective manufacturing policies and customised products, but it also overcame the barrier of having access to new suppliers or distributers which can be arduous for companies gaining and sustaining success within an online market. This factor can be analysed in more depth from the companys value bowed stringed instrument activities.The Value twin e of DellOverall, the following value chain model by Michael Porter helps analyse the type of activities within Dells value chain and how they interlink with one another, to fulfil their generic strategy.Dells customisation policy of tailoring technological solutions to satisfy individual or company needs, has provided the company with the two main advantages of being able to reduce marketing and sales costs by eliminating their intermediaries and building to order which, overall, reduces inventory costs (suite 101, 2009). This originally led to soaring profits, as the meshing has, ultimately, allowed Dell to extend the scope of their sales at a sensibly low marginal costThis following diagram allows a more definitive insight into how Dells value chain operates(Dedrick and Kraemer, 2001)Dell, unlike their competitors, actually eliminates the need for distributors and retailers to sell their product, which as mentioned earlier creates cost leadership. Hence, this direct PC value ch ain, works around this built to order (BTO) strategy.The BTO process begins with the customer placing an order through the net, phone or email and then it takes approximately one day to process the order (Turban et al, 2006, p.506). This then corresponds to this concept of just-in-time management as here Dell, only purchase the necessary part which are postulate for that particular order with the result being that inventories are kept to a minimum. Michael Dell emphasised this whole idea when he statedWe tell our suppliers exactly what our daily production requirements are. So its not, well every two week deliver 5,000 to this warehouse and well put them on the shelf, and then well take them off the shelf. Its tomorrow morning we need 8.562 and deliver them to door number seven by 7am.(Mhhe,1997).So, in the Dell manufacturing process, parts come into their factory to fulfil actual customer orders hence no PCs are made for stock, so there is no cost of concealment stock (Lynch, 2 009, p.789). This also has the advantage that if a supplier such as Intel, launches a new computer chip, then Dell is not caught with mellowed stocks of the old chip (Lynch, 2009, p.789), allowing the company to efficiently keep up with changes in technology. therefrom Dells procurement support activities i.e. purchasing of stock, play a arctic role in executing these strategies of BTO and JIT, both, before and after the product has been sold.So what are the exact support and primary activities that Dell has used, in concurrency with one another, which has lead to them adding value to their activities?A traditional firm normally incorporates a make-to-forecast strategy in which products are produced from long-term demands of consumers. Hence, when considering Porters value chain activities, here the primary activities of the value chain move from inbound logistics to trading trading operations to outbound logistics and then to marketing and sales (Turban et al, 2006, p.506). Ho wever, since Dell manufactures the product only after an order has been given, then the marketing and sales support bodily process is moved to the front of the value chain (Turban et al, 2006, p506). Notably the inbound logistics element is important since the correct parts have to be delivered but since the dimension of stock isnt necessary with Dell due to their JIT system, then it becomes less meaningful. Therefore the operations segment which transfers the supplies into the finished customised product and the service segment which Dell exemplifies to help the end-user(s) maintain their products i.e. the PCs value after the PC has been delivered, are the headstone primary elements of Porters Value Chain in which Dell uses. However, without the marketing and sales aspect these primary activities couldnt be executed since customised orders wouldnt be known and this has a direct link to the support activities of technology and procurement, as technology i.e. the internet allows D ell to sell their products to their customers and without it, it would be arduous to establish their hybrid strategy and procurement mechanisms are pivotal in maintaining their BTO and JIT policies since this deals with the acquisition of supplies in the more efficient way.There are though some criticisms of Dells value chain activities. Such as, the BTO strategy is sensitive to short term changes in demand. For example if a particular computer component suddenly becomes wildly popular or temporary unavailable, the standard supply in inventory may diminish fast, and customer orders will not be completed on time (Turban et al, 2006, p.507). Also, in terms of their service function. Orman (2007) argued that despite Dell providing one of the most effective support systems to its customers the company, fails to provide comparisons to the products of other vendors such as HP and also fails to compare products from one class to another such as desktops in relation to notebooks., Neverthe less though, Turban et al (2006, p.507) highlighted that by using bring out value chain activities such as operations and technology, Dell showed the world that when these are used effectively and efficiently, they can be used to gain a competitive advantage creates a distinctive competence and therefore leads to competitive advantage.Competitive Advantage of DellBy orchestrating a SWOT analysis of Dell, we can clearly see the key components which

Solutions to Domestic Violence

Solutions to domestic help help ViolenceProblem SolutionEvery right away and then, people exact been known to say, What can they do to abet soul they know that is being ab workd? thither atomic number 18 more varied solutions that people can do to help those in need that ar involved in a domestic force-out relationship. agree to the land mile State Police there argon various solutions involved in assisting someone. Knowing what one is talking rough by having some backcloth on domestic military group. Always let them know that your ears are subject at anytime they need to talk. Help them as much as practicable by being respectful, patient and substituteive in learning about their safety. Lastly, never let them think it is their fault, keep addressing that as much as possible. in that location is always ways to get help when someone necessitate it. They can do so by c all in all(a)ing the undercover subject Domestic Hotline (DMVH) at 1-800-799-SAFE (7233), they are available to the United States, 24 hours, 7 days a week, and open 365 days a year. The DMVH break counselors to certification them in getting them information and referrals for themselves, their small fryren, shelter, and judicial assistance (Michigan State Police).There are many other things that you could do to help a dupe or even a victim herself-importance can do. It whitethorn be just as easy as picking up a phone book to find out what organizations in your community help out with such as employment or even child care. There are other different things that can be make such as seeking counseling or even support groups. While you are seeking counseling, make sure you identify persist the counselor is for the abused and has had experience of working with the abused. Most of all last out active as much as possible to help your self esteem, self confidence, and getting you independence back (Women meshwork, Getting Help).Domestic force shelter, often called a womens shelt er is a building or stiff of apartments where victims of abuse can seek shelter. These shelter locations are kept confidential so these womens abusers are unable to find them. Shelters are known to interpret those abused and their children with shelter, food and childcare. Since there are very limited times for residing at a shelter, many shelters assist in placement of eternal homes and jobs (Help lean).There are different things that can be done afterwards leaving a shelter so their abuser doesnt find them. The extend 3 things that you can do are 1.) get and unlisted number, 2) use a P.O. Box, 3.) open new bank accounts and credit cards (Help guide). aft(prenominal) discovering how serious Domestic violence actually was, the Domestic Violence Bill, 2006 was passed. The Domestic Violence Bill was intended to allow more help and reprieve of the abuse. The purpose of this Bill was to allow those involved in domestic violence the maximum protection that the laws can provide. T hese laws work made it mandatory for all police stations to work specific departments to deal with and give legal duty on the officers to assist in a complaint domestic violence.Under the provision of this bill, police officers are suppose to advise the victim of their rights under, help in obtaining shelter, offer medical treatment, and to lodge a wretched complaint. The Domestic Violence Act overly gives police officers the power to defy the accused perpetrator, without a warrant who is reasonably suspected to have move or who is threatening to commit an act of domestic violence on a victim. If any person is arrested they are to be brought before a magistrate within forty-eight hours (Government Gazette)Under the Michigan Constitution, (Art. I, Sec. 24 eff. Dec. 24, 1988) and the Crime Victims Rights Act, (1985 PA 87 MCL 780.751) have given crime victims the right to be hard-boiled with dignity and respect. Making sure all is handled in a seasonable manner following an arre st. The victim also has the right to receive speck and medical services. Receive an explanation of all court proceedings. This act allows them to be protected of being free of any threats, acts, and/or discharge from your employer. The see of the Prosecutors who is handling the case. Any scheduled court proceedings, including sentencing, the defendants release on constipate or escape from custody while awaiting trial. The probation departments address and telephone number. succeed the court trial and make an oral statement to a pre-sentence investigator, and to issue an impact statement which will be included in the pre-sentence report. Victims are also allowed to receive information regarding the conviction, sentence, imprisonment, and release of the accused. (Michigan Prosecuting attorney Associations).There are many different effects of the abuse. If someone had physical abuse they may suffer from long term health complications. Abused women often have anxiety, tension, lo w energy, depression, insomnia, loss of appetite, or even headaches. They may believe that they failed the relationship. They have also been known to be ashamed and not allowing others to know scarcely what had happened to them. In just about every case of Domestic Violence, women have stated that they have lost their self esteem and lack of confidence. Women have also been known to have anger and fear towards themselves and their abuser. They are also known to isolate themselves from other such as family and friends (Womens Web, The Effect of Abuse).According to Direnfeld (2007), the aftermath of emotional and psychological can last for several geezerhood or even lifetime. It not only affects the victim but also other family members and later relationships. In many cases, children have the trauma of the violence. These children heighten to become bullies in their own right whose behavior the violated cite cannot control and whose behavior is reinforced by the perpetrator.There are many things that a victim needs to remember, its very hard to do it all at once. Between the police, and shelters, the victim has other they can talk to sort of it is a counselor or even someone that has been through it. There main thing they need to know what are their rights?ReferencesDirenfeld, G. MSW, RSW (2007). Alumbo, the Long subsection Of Domestic Violence.Retrieved July 24, 2009 from http//www.alumbo.com/article/32544-The-Long-Arm-Of-Domestic-Violence.htmlGovernment Gazett (2006). Domestic Violence Bill, 2006. Retrieved July 22, 2009 from http//www.kubatana.net/docs/legisl/dom_viol_bill_060630.pdfHelp guide (2008). Domestic Violence and Abuse Help, Treatment, Intervention, and Prevention Retrieved July 24, 2009 from http//www.alumbo.com/article/32544-The-Long-Arm-Of-Domestic-Violence.htmlMichigan Prosecuting Attorney Associations (2008). Victim Rights. Retrieved July 20, 2009 from http//www.michiganprosecutor.org/Victim.htmMichigan State Police (2009). Domestic Viole nce Awareness. Retrieved July 20, 2009 from http//www.michigan.gov/msp/0,1607,7-123-1589_1711_4577,00.htmlWomen Web (2009). Domestic Violence, The Effect of Abuse. Retrieved July 25, 2009 from http//www.womensweb.ca/violence/dv/effects.phpWomen Web (2009). Domestic Violence, Getting Help. Retrieved July 25, 2009 from http//www.womensweb.ca/violence/dv/help.php

Types of Logistics Strategies

Types of Logistics StrategiesLogisticsLogistics is the device and science of managing and visualizeling the hang up of goods, energy, learning and a nonher(prenominal) re mentions homogeneous harvestings, abide bys, and people, from the source of fruition to the marketplace. It is exhausting to action any marketing or manu pointuring with reveal logistic aliment. It involves the consolidation of culture, changeation, memorial, wargonho employ, material handling, and packaging. The run responsibility of logistics is the geographical repositioning of cutting materials, work in procedure, and complete inventories where required at the lowest damage possible.1- Overwiew of LogisticsThe word of logistics originates from the ancient Hellenic logos (), which means ratio, word, calculation, reason, speech, oration.Logistics as a ideal is con casered to burgeon forth from the contracts compulsion to total themselves as they fly the coopd from their tail to a frontward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, in that respect were military forwardicers with the backing Logistikas who were responsible for financial and return distri b argonlyion matters.The Oxford slope dictionary defines logistics as The emergence of military science having to do with procuring, brinytaining and transporting material, personnel office and facilities.A nonher dictionary definition is The duration cerebrate positioning of resources. As such(prenominal), logistics is commonly seen as a complexify of engineering which creates people brasss rather than apparatus clays.Military logisticsIn military logistics, experts manage how and when to move resources to the places they ar needed. In military science, maintaining aces tot up lines magical spell disrupting those of the enemy is a crucial- approximately would say the close crucial-element of military strategy, since an armed force with come forth food, fuel and amm bui ld blockion is defenseless(prenominal).The Iraq war was a dramatic example of the greatness of logistics. It had become truly necessary for the US and its entirelyies to move grand amounts of men, materials and equipment e unfeignedplace great distances. Led by Lieutenant General William Pagonis, Logistics was successfully aimd for this movement. The surmount of the British in the Ameri bottom War of Independence, and the defeat of Rommel in World War II, subscribe been bigly attri exclusivelyed to logistical failure. The historical leaders Hannibal Barca and Alexander the expectant argon considered to cast been logistical geni occasions.1. Logistics wayLogistics Management is that divorce of the ply concatenation which plans, implements and controls the efficient, effective forward and antonym flow and storage of goods, serves and related information amidst the rate of origin and the s cappage of consumption in range to meet clients requirements. line of d escent logisticsLogistics as a business c unitary clippt evolved only in the 1950s. This was primarily due to the increasing complexity of extend mavins business with materials and sendping out products in an increasingly globalized supply cosmic string, c distributivelying for experts in the sphere who be cal take Supply Chain Logisticians. This corporation be defined as having the slump circumstance in the acquire touchst single at the decline era for the right price and is the science of process and in corporates all industry sectors. The end of logistic work is to manage the actualisation of project life cycles, supply chains and resultant efficiencies.In business, logistics whitethorn withstand either interior(a) focus(inbound logistics), or external focus ( outbound logistics) top the flow and storage of materials from point of origin to point of consumption (see supply chain wariness). The main functions of a logistics manager include Inventory Manag ement, purchasing, transport, w arhousing, and the organizing and intend of these activities. Logistics managers combine a full general knowledge of to severally one of these functions so that in that location is a coordination of resources in an fundamental law. in that respect ar dickens fundamentally contrastive forms of logistics. One optimizes a unshakable flow of material by dint of a nedeucerk of transport think and storage nodes. The opposite coordinates a chronological succession of resources to keep out near project. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Logistikas who were responsible for financial and supply scattering matters.Production logisticsThe term is utilize for describing logistic processes within an industry. The spirit of production logistics is t o ensure that each bare(a) machine and workstation is organism fed with the right product in the right measuring rod and quality at the right point in time.The issue is not the transportation itself, but to contour and control the flow with the value adding processes and abstract non-value adding ones. Production logistics squeeze out be applied in real as well as new dos. Manufacturing in an existing plant is a constantly changing process. Machines atomic number 18 exchanged and new ones added, which gives the opport intacty to improve the production logistics form accordingly. Production logistics fork overs the means to choose through customer response and capital force2. commercialized vehicle functioningCommercial Vehicle Operations is an mussinession of Intelligent Transportation Systems for transports.A veritable(prenominal) establishment would be purchased by the managers of a truckage union. It would have a satellite navigation system, a scummy calculator and a digital radio receiver in each truck. E genuinely fifteen minutes the ready reckoner transmits where the truck has been. The digital radio table aid forwards the data to the key office of the trucking company. A computer system in the interchange office manages the fleet in real time low control of a team of dispatchers.In this way, the central office knows where its trucks argon. The company routes psyche thins by using barcoded containers and pallettes to track scads feature into a bigger container. To minimize handling-expense, wrong and waste of vehicle cognitive content, optimal-sized pallets are a lot constructed at dissemination points to go to particular destinations.A good load-tracking system will help come back more(prenominal) than 95% of its hemorrhoid via truck, on planned schedules. If a truck run lows off its route, or is delayed, the truck can be deviate to a lift out route, or urgent loads that are promising to be late can be diverted to air freight. This dispense withs a trucking company to deliver a authentic premium aid at only slightly higher appeal. The outdo proprietary systems, such as the one campaignd by FedEx, achieve better than 99.999% on-time deli rattling.Load-tracking systems mathematical function queuing theory, linear computer programing and minimum spanning tree logic to expect and improve arrival times. The admit means of machinetel these are plebeianly secret recipes deeply orphic in the software. The basic scheme is that supposed(p) routes are constructed by combining road segments, and then poor ones are eliminated using linear programming.The controlled routes allow a truck to avoid flagitious traffic ca utilize by rush-hour, accidents or road-work. Increasingly, governments are providing digital notification when roadways are kn suffer to have bring big bucks capacity.A good system lets the computer, dispatcher and driver collaborate on finding a good route, or a order to move the load. One special value is that the computer can automatically eliminate routes over roads that cannot take the burthen of the truck, or that have knock obstructions.Usually, the drivers log into the system. The system helps remind a driver to rest. Rested drivers operate the truck more skillfully and safely.When these systems were first-year introduced, whatsoever drivers resisted them, viewing them as a way for management to sight on the driver.A well-managed expert transportation system provides drivers with huge amounts of help. It gives them a view of their knowledge load and the network of roadways.Components of CVO includeFleet dispositionFreight Administrationelectronic ClearanceCommercial Vehicle administrative ProcessesInternational Border cover ClearanceWeigh-In-Motion (WIM)Roadside CVO safeOn-Board Safety superviseCVO Fleet cautionHazardous Material Planning and contingency ResponseFreight In-Transit superviseFreight Terminal Manage ment3. CONTAINERIZATIONContainerization is a system of intermodal freight transport lading transport using criterion ISO containers (kn ingest as Shipping Containers or Isotainers) that can be wonky and shut intact onto container carrys, aimingroad cars, planes, and trucks.Containerization is withal the term given to the process of determine the outstrip carton, turning point or pallet to be utilize to lineageize a single token or make out of items.ISO Container dimensions and payloads there are five common ideal aloofnesss, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2 m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States domestic commonplace containers are for the most part 48-ft and 53-ft ( kick and truck). Container capacity is careful in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized encumbrance capacity equal to one stock(a) 20 ft (length) 8 ft (width) 8 ft 6 in (height) container. In syst em of measurement units this is 6.10 m (length) 2.44 m (width) 2.59 m (height), or approximately 38.5 m. These cover at about US$2,500 in China, the biggest manufacturer.Most containers today are of the 40-ft (12.2 m) florilegium and are known as 40-foot containers. This is equivalent to 2 TEU. 45-foot (13.7 m) containers are as well designated 2 TEU. Two TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU). high-pitched cube containers have a height of 9 ft 6 in (2.9m), while half-height containers, utilise for heavy loads, have a height of 4 ft 3 in (1.3 m). When converting containers to TEUs, the height of the containers typically is not considered.The usage of US measurements to describe container size (TEU, FEU) despite the fact the rest of the world uses the calculated system reflects the fact that US raptus companies played a major part in the festering of containers. The overwhelming need to have a standard size for containers, in order that they fit all s hips, cranes, and trucks, and the length of time that the current container sizes have been in use, makes changing to an blush metric size impractical.The maximum gross destiny for a 20-ft teetotal cargo container is 24,000 kg, and for a 40-ft, (inc. the 2.87 m (9 ft 5 in) high cube container), it is 30,480 kg. Allowing for the swindle visual modality of the container, the maximum payload mass is there tightend to approx. 21,600 kg for 20-ft, and 26,500 kg for 40-ft containers.Shipping Container HistoryA container ship being loaded by a portainer crane in Copenhagen Harbour.Twistlocks which capture and constrain containers. Forklifts knowing to handle containers have similar devices.A container freight train in the UK.Containers produced a huge reduction in port handling hails, contribute significantly to lower freight charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows. Almost every manufacture product humans accept spends some time in a container. Containerization is an strategi c element of the innovations in logistics that revolutionized freight handling in the 20th century.Efforts to ship cargo in containers date to the 19th century. By the 1920s, coerce lines on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were invariably small by todays standards. From 1926 to 1947, the scratch unification brink and Milwaukee Railway carried motor aircraft carrier vehicles and shippers vehicles loaded on flatcars in the midst of Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois. root word in 1929, Seatrain Lines carried railroad boxcars on its ocean vessels to transport goods amongst wise York and Cuba. In the mid-1930s, the Chicago Great Western Railway and then the bracing Haven Railroad began piggy-back service (transporting highway freight bourdons on flatcars) circumscribed to their own railroads. By 1953, the CBQ, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the Southern Pacific railroads had united the innovation. Most cars were surplus flatcars weaponed with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggy-back trailer service.The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began surgical process in Denmark in 1951. Ships began carrying containers between Seattle and Alaska in 1951. The worlds first truly intermodal container system use purpose-built container ship the Clifford J. Rodgers built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White highroad and Yukon Route. Its first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia and Skagway, Alaska on November 26, 1955 in Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to the Yukon, in the first intermodal service using trucks, ships and railroad cars. Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in the Yukon, moved by truck, rail, ship and truck to their consignees, without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 195 5 for galore(postnominal) years.A converted container apply as an office at a building site.The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles.Improved cargo credential is similarly an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not visible to the passing(a) viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the containers are generally sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the falling off the truck syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry. expend of the aforementioned(prenominal) basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by contrastive rail guess sizes in varied countries. The lega l age of the rail networks in the world operate on a 1,435mm (4ft 8in) gauge track known as standard gauge but many countries like Russia, Finland and Spain use broader gauges while other many countries in Africa and South the States use narrower gauges on their networks. The use of container trains in all these countries makes trans- committal between diametrical gauge trains easier, with automatic or semi-automatic equipment.Some of the largest global companies containerizing containers today are Patrick Global Shipping, Bowen Exports and Theiler Sons Goods, LLC.Loss at sea of ISO ContainersContainers occasionally fall from the ships that carry them, something that occurs an estimated 2,000 to 10,000 times each year. For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, along with thousands of bags of its cargo of tortilla chips. Containers lost at sea do not needfully sink, but seldom float very high out of the water, qualification them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided oceanographers with upset(prenominal) opportunities to track global ocean currents.Double-stack containerizationA Railroad car with a 20 tank container and a accomplished 20 container.Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40 foot container, but if the rail line has been built with sufficient perpendicular headway, a well car can accept a container and mute leave seemly clearance for another container on top. This usually precludes operation of double-stacked wagons on lines with overhead electric automobile wiring (exception Betuweroute). Double stacking has been used in North America since American President Lines introduced this double stack ruler under the name of Stacktrain rail service in 1984. It saved shippers specie and now accounts for or so 70 percent of intermodal freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due to the generous perpendicular cle arances used by US railroadsISO Container types miscellaneous container types are on tap(predicate) for contrary inescapablyGeneral purpose dry van for boxes, cartons, cases, sacks, bales, pallets, drums in standard, high or half heightHigh cube palletwide containers for europallet compatibilityTemperature controlled from -25c to +25c reeferOpen top bulktainers for bulk minerals, heavy machineryOpen side for loading oversize palletFlushfolding flat-rack containers for heavy and bulky semi-finished goods, out of gauge cargoPlatform or bolster for barrels and drums, crates, cable drums, out of gauge cargo, machinery, and processed woodlandVentilated containers for organic products requiring ventilation tank car containers for bulk liquids and dangerous goods roster floor for difficult to handle cargoDetermining the best carton, box or palletWhile the origination of the best container for shipping of impudently created product is called Containerization, the term in addition appl ies to find the right box and the best placement inside that box in order forgatherlment. This whitethorn be planned by software modules in a warehouse management system. This optimization software calculates the best spatial position of each item withing such constraints as stackability and crush apology4. CROSS DOCKINGCross-docking is a practice in logistics of unloading materials from an entranceway semi-trailer truck or rail car and loading these materials in outbound trailers or rail cars, with half-size or no storage in between. This may be through to change type of conveyance, or to behavior material intended for different destinations, or to combine material from different origins.Cross docking is used to decrease inventory storage by streamlining the flow between the supplier and the manufacturer.Typical applicationsHub and spoke ar putments, where materials are brought in to one central locating and then sorted for delivery to a variety of destinationsConsolidati on arrangements, where a variety of smaller shipments are combined into one big shipment for economy of transportDeconsolidation arrangements, where large shipments (e.g. cable car lots) are broken down into smaller lots for ease of delivery.Factors influencing the use of cross-docksCustomer and supplier geographics oddly when a single corporate customer has many ternary branches or using pointsFreight cost for the commodities being transportedCost of inventory in transitComplexity of loadsHandling methodsLogistics software integration between supplier(s), vendor, and shipper5 . distributionDistribution is one of the four aspects of marketing. A distributer is the middleman between the manufacturer and retail merchant. aft(prenominal) a product is manufactured it is typically shipped (and usually change) to a allocator. The distributor then carry ons the product to retailers or customers.The other three separate of the marketing mix are product management, pricing, and pro motion.Traditionally, dispersion has been seen as relations with logistics how to get the product or service to the customer. It must answer questions such asShould the product be sold through a retailer?Should the product be distributed through sell?Should multi-level marketing cables be used?How long should the product line be (how many members)?Where should the product or service be available?When should the product or service be available?Should distribution be exclusive, selective or extensive?Who should control the line of business (referred to as the crinkle captain)?Should channel relationships be informal or contractual?Should channel members share advertize (referred to as co-op ads)?Should electronic methods of distribution be used? atomic number 18 there physical distribution and logistical issues to deal with?What will it cost to keep an inventory of products on workshop shelves and in channel warehouses (referred to as filling the pipeline)?The distribution ch annel highroadsA number of understudy carry of distribution may be availableSelling claim, such as via place order, Internet and telephone gross gross revenueAgent, who typically sells call for on behalf of the makerDistributor ( in like manner called sellr), who sells to retailersretailer (also called dealer), who sells to end customersAdvertisement typically used for consumption goodsDistribution carry may not be restricted to physical products alone. They may be right as important for moving a service from producer to consumer in original sectors, since some(prenominal) direct and indirect channels may be used. Hotels, for example, may sell their services (typically rooms) directly or through travel agents, tour operators, airlines, tourist boards, centralized reservation systems, etc. on that point have also been some innovations in the distribution of services. For example, there has been an amplify in franchising and in term of a contract services the latter offering anything from televisions through tools. There has also been some evidence of service integration, with services linking together, peculiarly in the travel and tourism sectors. For example, links now exist between airlines, hotels and car rental services. In addition, there has been a significant enlarge in retail outlets for the service sector. Outlets such as estate agencies and building society offices are displace out traditional grocers from major shop areas.. line of products membersDistribution channels can thus have a number of levels. Kotler defined the simplest level, that of direct contact with no intermediaries involved, as the zero-level channel.The succeeding(a) level, the one-level channel, features just one mediator in consumer goods a retailer, for industrial goods a distributor, say. In small markets (such as small countries) it is practical to reach the whole market using just one- and zero-level channels.In large markets (such as larger countries) a second level, a wholesaler for example, is now mainly used to extend distribution to the large number of small, neighbourhood retailers In lacquer the chain of distribution is a great deal complex and further levels are used, evening for the simplest .Channel structureTo the mixed levels of distribution, which they refer to as the channel length, Lancaster and Massingham also added another structural element, the relationship between its membersConventional or free-flow This is the usual, widely recognized, channel with a range of middle-men passing the goods on to the end-user.Single operation A temporary channel may be set up for one transaction for example, the sale of property or a particular proposition civil engineering project. This does not share many characteristics with other channel transactions, each one being unique. plumb marketing system (VMS) In this form, the elements of distribution are integrated.The inseparable marketMany of the marketing principles an d techniques which are applied to the external customers of an organization can be just as effectively applied to each subsidiarys, or each departments, internal customers.In some parts of certain organizations this may in fact be formalized, as goods are transferred between separate parts of the organization at a transfer price. To all intents and purposes, with the possible exception of the pricing appliance itself, this process can and should be viewed as a radiation pattern buyer-seller relationship.less(prenominal) obvious, but just as practical, is the use of marketing by service and administrative departments to optimize their theatrical role to their customers (the rest of the organization in general, and those parts of it which deal directly with them in particular). In all of this, the lessons of the non-profit organizations, in dealing with their clients, offer a very useful parallel.Channel DecisionsChannel strategyProduct (or service)CostConsumer locationChannel mana gementThe channel decision is very important. In theory at least, there is a form of trade-off the cost of using intermediaries to achieve wider distribution is supposedly lower. Indeed, most consumer goods manufacturers could never justify the cost of exchange direct to their consumers, except by mail order. In practice, if the producer is large enough, the use of intermediaries ( oddly at the agent and wholesaler level) can sometimes cost more than going direct.Many of the speculative arguments about channels thence revolve round cost. On the other hand, most of the practical decisions are come to with control of the consumer. The small company has no alternative but to use intermediaries, often several layers of them, but large companies do have the choice.However, many suppliers seem to assume that once their product has been sold into the channel, into the number one of the distribution chain, their rail line is finished. Yet that distribution chain is merely presumptuo us a part of the suppliers responsibility and, if he has any aspirations to be market-oriented, his job should really be extended to managing, albeit very indirectly, all the processes involved in that chain, until the product or service arrives with the end-user. This may involve a number of decisions on the part of the supplierChannel social statusChannel motivatingMonitoring and managing channelsChannel membershipIntensive distribution Where the majority of resellers stock the product (with convenience products, for example, and particularly the brand leaders in consumer goods markets) price competition may be evident.Selective distribution This is the normal pattern (in both consumer and industrial markets) where qualified resellers stock the product.Exclusive distribution Only specially selected resellers (typically only one per geographical area) are allowed to sell the product.Channel motivationIt is difficult enough to motivate direct employees to provide the necessary sales and service support. motivating the owners and employees of the independent organizations in a distribution chain requires even great effort. There are many devices for achieving such motivation. Perhaps the most usual is bribery the supplier offers a better margin, to tempt the owners in the channel to press the product rather than its competitors or a competition is offered to the distributors sales personnel, so that they are tempted to push the product. At the other end of the spectrum is the almost symbiotic relationship that the all too rare supplier in the computer field develops with its agents where the agents personnel, support as well as sales, are trained to almost the same standard as the suppliers own staff.Monitoring and managing channelsIn much(prenominal) the same way that the organizations own sales and distribution activities need to be monitored and managed, so will those of the distribution chain.In practice, of course, many organizations use a mix of different channels in particular, they may complement a direct salesforce, work on the larger accounts, with agents, covering the smaller customers and prospects.Vertical marketingThis relatively recent development integrates the channel with the original supplier producer, wholesalers and retailers working in one integrated system. This may arise because one member of the chain owns the other elements (often called corporate systems integration) a supplier owning its own retail outlets, this being forward integration. It is mayhap more likely that a retailer will own its own suppliers, this being backward integration. (For example, MFI, the piece of furniture retailer, owns Hygena which makes its kitchen and bedroom units.) The integration can also be by claim (such as that offered by McDonalds hamburgers and Benetton clothes) or simple co-operation (in the way that Marks Spencer co-operates with its suppliers). secondary approaches are contractual systems, often led by a wh olesale or retail co-operative, and administered marketing systems where one (dominant) member of the distribution chain uses its position to co-ordinate the other members activities. This has traditionally been the form led by manufacturers.The intention of vertical marketing is to give all those involved (and particularly the supplier at one end, and the retailer at the other) control over the distribution chain. This removes one set of variables from the marketing equations.Other research indicates that vertical integration is a strategy which is best pursued at the mature stage of the market (or product). At earliest stages it can actually reduce profits. It is arguable that it also diverts attention from the real business of the organization. Suppliers rarely jump in retail operations and, in theory, retailers should focus on their sales outlets rather than on manufacturing facilities ( Marks Spencer, for example, very deliberately provides considerable amounts of good assi stance to its suppliers, but does not own them).Horizontal marketingA rather less frequent example of new approaches to channels is where two or more non-competing organizations agree on a joint ship a joint marketing operation because it is beyond the capacity of each individual organization alone. In general, this is less likely to revolve around marketing synergy.LOGISTICS IN FOOD DISTRIBUTION nutrition distribution, a method of distributing (or transporting) food from one place to another, is a very important means in public nutrition. Where it breaks down, famine, malnutrition or nausea can occur. During some periods of antediluvian patriarch Rome, food distribution occurred with the policy of swelled free bread to its citizens under the provision of a common good.There are three main components of food distributionTransport infrastructure, such as roads, vehicles, rail transport, airports, and ports.Food handling technology and regulation, such as refrigeration, and sto rage, warehousing.Adequate source and supply logistics, based on demand and need. randomness logisticsIn general, it is exactly logistics of information.The field of information logistics aims at developing concepts, technologies and applications for need-oriented information supply. Information-on-demand services are a typical application area for information logistics, as they have to fulfil user needs with respect to content, location, time and qualityInformation Logistics consists of two words information and logistics. Information can mean a lot of things, but usually is text (syntax with a semantic meaning) and logistics which is the transportation of somatotrophin from point A to point B. In a simplified mind is a newsletter information logistics, also an e-mail or even the ordinary mail you receive.Information logistics is concerned with the supply of information to individuals andTypes of Logistics StrategiesTypes of Logistics StrategiesLogisticsLogistics is the art and s cience of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy, information and other resources like products, services, and people, from the source of production to the marketplace. It is difficult to accomplish any marketing or manufacturing without logistical support. It involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging. The operating responsibility of logistics is the geographical repositioning of raw materials, work in process, and finished inventories where required at the lowest cost possible.1- Overwiew of LogisticsThe word of logistics originates from the ancient Greek logos (), which means ratio, word, calculation, reason, speech, oration.Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Logistikas who were responsible for financ ial and supply distribution matters.The Oxford English dictionary defines logistics as The branch of military science having to do with procuring, maintaining and transporting material, personnel and facilities.Another dictionary definition is The time related positioning of resources. As such, logistics is commonly seen as a branch of engineering which creates people systems rather than machine systems.Military logisticsIn military logistics, experts manage how and when to move resources to the places they are needed. In military science, maintaining ones supply lines while disrupting those of the enemy is a crucial-some would say the most crucial-element of military strategy, since an armed force without food, fuel and ammunition is defenseless.The Iraq war was a dramatic example of the importance of logistics. It had become very necessary for the US and its allies to move huge amounts of men, materials and equipment over great distances. Led by Lieutenant General William Pagonis, Logistics was successfully used for this movement. The defeat of the British in the American War of Independence, and the defeat of Rommel in World War II, have been largely attributed to logistical failure. The historical leaders Hannibal Barca and Alexander the Great are considered to have been logistical geniuses.1. Logistics ManagementLogistics Management is that part of the supply chain which plans, implements and controls the efficient, effective forward and reverse flow and storage of goods, services and related information between the point of origin and the point of consumption in order to meet customers requirements.Business logisticsLogistics as a business concept evolved only in the 1950s. This was mainly due to the increasing complexity of supplying ones business with materials and shipping out products in an increasingly globalized supply chain, calling for experts in the field who are called Supply Chain Logisticians. This can be defined as having the right item in t he right quantity at the right time for the right price and is the science of process and incorporates all industry sectors. The goal of logistic work is to manage the fruition of project life cycles, supply chains and resultant efficiencies.In business, logistics may have either internal focus(inbound logistics), or external focus (outbound logistics) covering the flow and storage of materials from point of origin to point of consumption (see supply chain management). The main functions of a logistics manager include Inventory Management, purchasing, transport, warehousing, and the organizing and planning of these activities. Logistics managers combine a general knowledge of each of these functions so that there is a coordination of resources in an organization. There are two fundamentally different forms of logistics. One optimizes a steady flow of material through a network of transport links and storage nodes. The other coordinates a sequence of resources to carry out some proje ct. Logistics as a concept is considered to evolve from the militarys need to supply themselves as they moved from their base to a forward position. In ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine empires, there were military officers with the title Logistikas who were responsible for financial and supply distribution matters.Production logisticsThe term is used for describing logistic processes within an industry. The purpose of production logistics is to ensure that each machine and workstation is being fed with the right product in the right quantity and quality at the right point in time.The issue is not the transportation itself, but to streamline and control the flow through the value adding processes and eliminate non-value adding ones. Production logistics can be applied in existing as well as new plants. Manufacturing in an existing plant is a constantly changing process. Machines are exchanged and new ones added, which gives the opportunity to improve the production logistics system accordingly. Production logistics provides the means to achieve customer response and capital efficiency2. Commercial vehicle operationCommercial Vehicle Operations is an application of Intelligent Transportation Systems for trucks.A typical system would be purchased by the managers of a trucking company. It would have a satellite navigation system, a small computer and a digital radio in each truck. Every fifteen minutes the computer transmits where the truck has been. The digital radio service forwards the data to the central office of the trucking company. A computer system in the central office manages the fleet in real time under control of a team of dispatchers.In this way, the central office knows where its trucks are. The company tracks individual loads by using barcoded containers and pallets to track loads combined into a larger container. To minimize handling-expense, damage and waste of vehicle capacity, optimal-sized pallets are often constructed at distribution points to go to particular destinations.A good load-tracking system will help deliver more than 95% of its loads via truck, on planned schedules. If a truck gets off its route, or is delayed, the truck can be diverted to a better route, or urgent loads that are likely to be late can be diverted to air freight. This allows a trucking company to deliver a true premium service at only slightly higher cost. The best proprietary systems, such as the one operated by FedEx, achieve better than 99.999% on-time delivery.Load-tracking systems use queuing theory, linear programming and minimum spanning tree logic to predict and improve arrival times. The exact means of combining these are usually secret recipes deeply hidden in the software. The basic scheme is that hypothetical routes are constructed by combining road segments, and then poor ones are eliminated using linear programming.The controlled routes allow a truck to avoid heavy traffic caused by rush-hour, accidents or road-work. Increasing ly, governments are providing digital notification when roadways are known to have reduced capacity.A good system lets the computer, dispatcher and driver collaborate on finding a good route, or a method to move the load. One special value is that the computer can automatically eliminate routes over roads that cannot take the weight of the truck, or that have overhead obstructions.Usually, the drivers log into the system. The system helps remind a driver to rest. Rested drivers operate the truck more skillfully and safely.When these systems were first introduced, some drivers resisted them, viewing them as a way for management to spy on the driver.A well-managed intelligent transportation system provides drivers with huge amounts of help. It gives them a view of their own load and the network of roadways.Components of CVO includeFleet AdministrationFreight AdministrationElectronic ClearanceCommercial Vehicle Administrative ProcessesInternational Border Crossing ClearanceWeigh-In-Mot ion (WIM)Roadside CVO SafetyOn-Board Safety MonitoringCVO Fleet MaintenanceHazardous Material Planning and Incident ResponseFreight In-Transit MonitoringFreight Terminal Management3. CONTAINERIZATIONContainerization is a system of intermodal freight transport cargo transport using standard ISO containers (known as Shipping Containers or Isotainers) that can be loaded and sealed intact onto container ships, railroad cars, planes, and trucks.Containerization is also the term given to the process of determining the best carton, box or pallet to be used to ship a single item or number of items.ISO Container dimensions and payloadsThere are five common standard lengths, 20-ft (6.1 m), 40-ft (12.2 m), 45-ft (13.7 m), 48-ft (14.6 m), and 53-ft (16.2 m). United States domestic standard containers are generally 48-ft and 53-ft (rail and truck). Container capacity is measured in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes teu). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized c argo capacity equal to one standard 20 ft (length) 8 ft (width) 8 ft 6 in (height) container. In metric units this is 6.10 m (length) 2.44 m (width) 2.59 m (height), or approximately 38.5 m. These sell at about US$2,500 in China, the biggest manufacturer.Most containers today are of the 40-ft (12.2 m) variety and are known as 40-foot containers. This is equivalent to 2 TEU. 45-foot (13.7 m) containers are also designated 2 TEU. Two TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU). High cube containers have a height of 9 ft 6 in (2.9m), while half-height containers, used for heavy loads, have a height of 4 ft 3 in (1.3 m). When converting containers to TEUs, the height of the containers typically is not considered.The use of US measurements to describe container size (TEU, FEU) despite the fact the rest of the world uses the metric system reflects the fact that US shipping companies played a major part in the development of containers. The overwhelming need to have a st andard size for containers, in order that they fit all ships, cranes, and trucks, and the length of time that the current container sizes have been in use, makes changing to an even metric size impractical.The maximum gross mass for a 20-ft dry cargo container is 24,000 kg, and for a 40-ft, (inc. the 2.87 m (9 ft 5 in) high cube container), it is 30,480 kg. Allowing for the tare mass of the container, the maximum payload mass is there reduced to approx. 21,600 kg for 20-ft, and 26,500 kg for 40-ft containers.Shipping Container HistoryA container ship being loaded by a portainer crane in Copenhagen Harbour.Twistlocks which capture and constrain containers. Forklifts designed to handle containers have similar devices.A container freight train in the UK.Containers produced a huge reduction in port handling costs, contributing significantly to lower freight charges and, in turn, boosting trade flows. Almost every manufactured product humans consume spends some time in a container. Conta inerization is an important element of the innovations in logistics that revolutionized freight handling in the 20th century.Efforts to ship cargo in containers date to the 19th century. By the 1920s, railroads on several continents were carrying containers that could be transferred to trucks or ships, but these containers were invariably small by todays standards. From 1926 to 1947, the Chicago North Shore and Milwaukee Railway carried motor carrier vehicles and shippers vehicles loaded on flatcars between Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Chicago, Illinois. Beginning in 1929, Seatrain Lines carried railroad boxcars on its sea vessels to transport goods between New York and Cuba. In the mid-1930s, the Chicago Great Western Railway and then the New Haven Railroad began piggy-back service (transporting highway freight trailers on flatcars) limited to their own railroads. By 1953, the CBQ, the Chicago and Eastern Illinois and the Southern Pacific railroads had joined the innovation. Most cars were surplus flatcars equipped with new decks. By 1955, an additional 25 railroads had begun some form of piggy-back trailer service.The first vessels purpose-built to carry containers began operation in Denmark in 1951. Ships began carrying containers between Seattle and Alaska in 1951. The worlds first truly intermodal container system used purpose-built container ship the Clifford J. Rodgers built in Montreal in 1955 and owned by the White Pass and Yukon Route. Its first trip carried 600 containers between North Vancouver, British Columbia and Skagway, Alaska on November 26, 1955 in Skagway, the containers were unloaded to purpose-built railroad cars for transport north to the Yukon, in the first intermodal service using trucks, ships and railroad cars. Southbound containers were loaded by shippers in the Yukon, moved by truck, rail, ship and truck to their consignees, without opening. This first intermodal system operated from November 1955 for many years.A converted container u sed as an office at a building site.The widespread use of ISO standard containers has driven modifications in other freight-moving standards, gradually forcing removable truck bodies or swap bodies into the standard sizes and shapes (though without the strength needed to be stacked), and changing completely the worldwide use of freight pallets that fit into ISO containers or into commercial vehicles.Improved cargo security is also an important benefit of containerization. The cargo is not visible to the casual viewer and thus is less likely to be stolen and the doors of the containers are generally sealed so that tampering is more evident. This has reduced the falling off the truck syndrome that long plagued the shipping industry.Use of the same basic sizes of containers across the globe has lessened the problems caused by incompatible rail gauge sizes in different countries. The majority of the rail networks in the world operate on a 1,435mm (4ft 8in) gauge track known as standard gauge but many countries like Russia, Finland and Spain use broader gauges while other many countries in Africa and South America use narrower gauges on their networks. The use of container trains in all these countries makes trans-shipment between different gauge trains easier, with automatic or semi-automatic equipment.Some of the largest global companies containerizing containers today are Patrick Global Shipping, Bowen Exports and Theiler Sons Goods, LLC.Loss at sea of ISO ContainersContainers occasionally fall from the ships that carry them, something that occurs an estimated 2,000 to 10,000 times each year. For instance, on November 30, 2006, a container washed ashore on the Outer Banks of North Carolina, along with thousands of bags of its cargo of tortilla chips. Containers lost at sea do not necessarily sink, but seldom float very high out of the water, making them a shipping hazard that is difficult to detect. Freight from lost containers has provided oceanographers with unexpected opportunities to track global ocean currents.Double-stack containerizationA Railroad car with a 20 tank container and a conventional 20 container.Most flatcars cannot carry more than one standard 40 foot container, but if the rail line has been built with sufficient vertical clearance, a well car can accept a container and still leave enough clearance for another container on top. This usually precludes operation of double-stacked wagons on lines with overhead electric wiring (exception Betuweroute). Double stacking has been used in North America since American President Lines introduced this double stack principle under the name of Stacktrain rail service in 1984. It saved shippers money and now accounts for almost 70 percent of intermodal freight transport shipments in the United States, in part due to the generous vertical clearances used by US railroadsISO Container typesVarious container types are available for different needsGeneral purpose dry van for boxes, carton s, cases, sacks, bales, pallets, drums in standard, high or half heightHigh cube palletwide containers for europallet compatibilityTemperature controlled from -25c to +25c reeferOpen top bulktainers for bulk minerals, heavy machineryOpen side for loading oversize palletFlushfolding flat-rack containers for heavy and bulky semi-finished goods, out of gauge cargoPlatform or bolster for barrels and drums, crates, cable drums, out of gauge cargo, machinery, and processed timberVentilated containers for organic products requiring ventilationTank containers for bulk liquids and dangerous goodsRolling floor for difficult to handle cargoDetermining the best carton, box or palletWhile the creation of the best container for shipping of newly created product is called Containerization, the term also applies to determining the right box and the best placement inside that box in order fulfillment. This may be planned by software modules in a warehouse management system. This optimization softwar e calculates the best spatial position of each item withing such constraints as stackability and crush resistance4. CROSS DOCKINGCross-docking is a practice in logistics of unloading materials from an incoming semi-trailer truck or rail car and loading these materials in outbound trailers or rail cars, with little or no storage in between. This may be done to change type of conveyance, or to sort material intended for different destinations, or to combine material from different origins.Cross docking is used to decrease inventory storage by streamlining the flow between the supplier and the manufacturer.Typical applicationsHub and spoke arrangements, where materials are brought in to one central location and then sorted for delivery to a variety of destinationsConsolidation arrangements, where a variety of smaller shipments are combined into one larger shipment for economy of transportDeconsolidation arrangements, where large shipments (e.g. railcar lots) are broken down into smalle r lots for ease of delivery.Factors influencing the use of cross-docksCustomer and supplier geography particularly when a single corporate customer has many multiple branches or using pointsFreight costs for the commodities being transportedCost of inventory in transitComplexity of loadsHandling methodsLogistics software integration between supplier(s), vendor, and shipper5 .DISTRIBUTIONDistribution is one of the four aspects of marketing. A distributor is the middleman between the manufacturer and retailer. After a product is manufactured it is typically shipped (and usually sold) to a distributor. The distributor then sells the product to retailers or customers.The other three parts of the marketing mix are product management, pricing, and promotion.Traditionally, distribution has been seen as dealing with logistics how to get the product or service to the customer. It must answer questions such asShould the product be sold through a retailer?Should the product be distributed thr ough wholesale?Should multi-level marketing channels be used?How long should the channel be (how many members)?Where should the product or service be available?When should the product or service be available?Should distribution be exclusive, selective or extensive?Who should control the channel (referred to as the channel captain)?Should channel relationships be informal or contractual?Should channel members share advertising (referred to as co-op ads)?Should electronic methods of distribution be used?Are there physical distribution and logistical issues to deal with?What will it cost to keep an inventory of products on store shelves and in channel warehouses (referred to as filling the pipeline)?The distribution channel bringA number of alternate channels of distribution may be availableSelling direct, such as via mail order, Internet and telephone salesAgent, who typically sells direct on behalf of the producerDistributor (also called wholesaler), who sells to retailersRetailer (a lso called dealer), who sells to end customersAdvertisement typically used for consumption goodsDistribution channels may not be restricted to physical products alone. They may be just as important for moving a service from producer to consumer in certain sectors, since both direct and indirect channels may be used. Hotels, for example, may sell their services (typically rooms) directly or through travel agents, tour operators, airlines, tourist boards, centralized reservation systems, etc.There have also been some innovations in the distribution of services. For example, there has been an increase in franchising and in rental services the latter offering anything from televisions through tools. There has also been some evidence of service integration, with services linking together, particularly in the travel and tourism sectors. For example, links now exist between airlines, hotels and car rental services. In addition, there has been a significant increase in retail outlets for t he service sector. Outlets such as estate agencies and building society offices are crowding out traditional grocers from major shopping areas..Channel membersDistribution channels can thus have a number of levels. Kotler defined the simplest level, that of direct contact with no intermediaries involved, as the zero-level channel.The next level, the one-level channel, features just one intermediary in consumer goods a retailer, for industrial goods a distributor, say. In small markets (such as small countries) it is practical to reach the whole market using just one- and zero-level channels.In large markets (such as larger countries) a second level, a wholesaler for example, is now mainly used to extend distribution to the large number of small, neighbourhood retailers In Japan the chain of distribution is often complex and further levels are used, even for the simplest .Channel structureTo the various levels of distribution, which they refer to as the channel length, Lancaster and Massingham also added another structural element, the relationship between its membersConventional or free-flow This is the usual, widely recognized, channel with a range of middle-men passing the goods on to the end-user.Single transaction A temporary channel may be set up for one transaction for example, the sale of property or a specific civil engineering project. This does not share many characteristics with other channel transactions, each one being unique.Vertical marketing system (VMS) In this form, the elements of distribution are integrated.The internal marketMany of the marketing principles and techniques which are applied to the external customers of an organization can be just as effectively applied to each subsidiarys, or each departments, internal customers.In some parts of certain organizations this may in fact be formalized, as goods are transferred between separate parts of the organization at a transfer price. To all intents and purposes, with the possible excep tion of the pricing mechanism itself, this process can and should be viewed as a normal buyer-seller relationship.Less obvious, but just as practical, is the use of marketing by service and administrative departments to optimize their contribution to their customers (the rest of the organization in general, and those parts of it which deal directly with them in particular). In all of this, the lessons of the non-profit organizations, in dealing with their clients, offer a very useful parallel.Channel DecisionsChannel strategyProduct (or service)CostConsumer locationChannel managementThe channel decision is very important. In theory at least, there is a form of trade-off the cost of using intermediaries to achieve wider distribution is supposedly lower. Indeed, most consumer goods manufacturers could never justify the cost of selling direct to their consumers, except by mail order. In practice, if the producer is large enough, the use of intermediaries (particularly at the agent and wholesaler level) can sometimes cost more than going direct.Many of the theoretical arguments about channels therefore revolve around cost. On the other hand, most of the practical decisions are concerned with control of the consumer. The small company has no alternative but to use intermediaries, often several layers of them, but large companies do have the choice.However, many suppliers seem to assume that once their product has been sold into the channel, into the beginning of the distribution chain, their job is finished. Yet that distribution chain is merely assuming a part of the suppliers responsibility and, if he has any aspirations to be market-oriented, his job should really be extended to managing, albeit very indirectly, all the processes involved in that chain, until the product or service arrives with the end-user. This may involve a number of decisions on the part of the supplierChannel membershipChannel motivationMonitoring and managing channelsChannel membershipInte nsive distribution Where the majority of resellers stock the product (with convenience products, for example, and particularly the brand leaders in consumer goods markets) price competition may be evident.Selective distribution This is the normal pattern (in both consumer and industrial markets) where suitable resellers stock the product.Exclusive distribution Only specially selected resellers (typically only one per geographical area) are allowed to sell the product.Channel motivationIt is difficult enough to motivate direct employees to provide the necessary sales and service support. Motivating the owners and employees of the independent organizations in a distribution chain requires even greater effort. There are many devices for achieving such motivation. Perhaps the most usual is bribery the supplier offers a better margin, to tempt the owners in the channel to push the product rather than its competitors or a competition is offered to the distributors sales personnel, so t hat they are tempted to push the product. At the other end of the spectrum is the almost symbiotic relationship that the all too rare supplier in the computer field develops with its agents where the agents personnel, support as well as sales, are trained to almost the same standard as the suppliers own staff.Monitoring and managing channelsIn much the same way that the organizations own sales and distribution activities need to be monitored and managed, so will those of the distribution chain.In practice, of course, many organizations use a mix of different channels in particular, they may complement a direct salesforce, calling on the larger accounts, with agents, covering the smaller customers and prospects.Vertical marketingThis relatively recent development integrates the channel with the original supplier producer, wholesalers and retailers working in one unified system. This may arise because one member of the chain owns the other elements (often called corporate systems int egration) a supplier owning its own retail outlets, this being forward integration. It is perhaps more likely that a retailer will own its own suppliers, this being backward integration. (For example, MFI, the furniture retailer, owns Hygena which makes its kitchen and bedroom units.) The integration can also be by franchise (such as that offered by McDonalds hamburgers and Benetton clothes) or simple co-operation (in the way that Marks Spencer co-operates with its suppliers).Alternative approaches are contractual systems, often led by a wholesale or retail co-operative, and administered marketing systems where one (dominant) member of the distribution chain uses its position to co-ordinate the other members activities. This has traditionally been the form led by manufacturers.The intention of vertical marketing is to give all those involved (and particularly the supplier at one end, and the retailer at the other) control over the distribution chain. This removes one set of variabl es from the marketing equations.Other research indicates that vertical integration is a strategy which is best pursued at the mature stage of the market (or product). At earlier stages it can actually reduce profits. It is arguable that it also diverts attention from the real business of the organization. Suppliers rarely excel in retail operations and, in theory, retailers should focus on their sales outlets rather than on manufacturing facilities ( Marks Spencer, for example, very deliberately provides considerable amounts of technical assistance to its suppliers, but does not own them).Horizontal marketingA rather less frequent example of new approaches to channels is where two or more non-competing organizations agree on a joint venture a joint marketing operation because it is beyond the capacity of each individual organization alone. In general, this is less likely to revolve around marketing synergy.LOGISTICS IN FOOD DISTRIBUTIONFood distribution, a method of distributing (or transporting) food from one place to another, is a very important factor in public nutrition. Where it breaks down, famine, malnutrition or illness can occur. During some periods of Ancient Rome, food distribution occurred with the policy of giving free bread to its citizens under the provision of a common good.There are three main components of food distributionTransport infrastructure, such as roads, vehicles, rail transport, airports, and ports.Food handling technology and regulation, such as refrigeration, and storage, warehousing.Adequate source and supply logistics, based on demand and need.Information logisticsIn general, it is exactly logistics of information.The field of information logistics aims at developing concepts, technologies and applications for need-oriented information supply. Information-on-demand services are a typical application area for information logistics, as they have to fulfil user needs with respect to content, location, time and qualityInformation Logistics consists of two words information and logistics. Information can mean a lot of things, but usually is text (syntax with a semantic meaning) and logistics which is the transportation of sth from point A to point B. In a simplified sense is a newsletter information logistics, also an e-mail or even the ordinary mail you receive.Information logistics is concerned with the supply of information to individuals and

Design of Hybrid Filter With Wavelet Denoising

Design of mark Filter With rippling DenoisingSimranjit KaurDESIGN OF HYBRID FILTER WITH WAVELET DENOISING AND eolotropic DIFFUSION FILTER FOR IMAGE DESPECKLING1. INTRODUCTIONDigital types are scopes which are formed of picture elements withal termed as pixels. The pixels typically are pose in a rectangular array. The dimensions of the pixel array determine its size. Its breadth is defined by the number of columns, and height by the number of rows in that array. Digital discovers are susceptible to various types of tone.Speckleis a form of go which exists in and minifys the quality of the activeradarandsynthetic aperture radar(SAR) foresees. part denoising is an essential task in image touch, both as a component in other does and as a process itself. various methods are there to de make noise the image. A good image denoising baby-sit conserve edges, while removing noise. If the window size is quite large, consequently the oer smoothing testament occur and edges become blur out. If the size of window is small, then the smoothing topographic point of the window decreases and doesnt guide the speckle noise that efficiently. Secondly, in the conventional tenses there is no enhancement of edges. Thirdly these existing filters are non directional. Finally, the thresholds which are used in the existing filters, although are inspired by statistical arguments, they are ad hoc improvements which only display the drawbacks of the window- base approach.So, inorder to alleviate this problem, hybrid filter with Wavelet denoising and anisotropic dispersion filter, has been proposed. In this personate, we work on the drawbacks of the antecedent role models such as oversmoothing of the images and unnecessaryremotion of the edges.1.1 SCOPE OF STUDYThe scope of work for this model is finding an accurate technique for the burstment of a hybrid despeckling model whose of import purpose is to preserve the edges of the image and avoid oversmoothing duri ng denoising. We have to take away various previous techniques and on the basis of the study we testament develop a model which overcomes the flaws of existing despeckling methods while improving the quality parameters in the end of filtering process.2. OBJECTIVESTo reduce the speckle noise.To improve the parameters bid peak contract to noise ratio, equivalent no of looks and coefficient of correlation.Tocreate a split up image processing algorithmic programTo investigate the proper selection of ripple filters and thresholding scheme which yields optimal visual enhancement of SAR images.Tocreate a ameliorate image processing algorithm for denoising technique.To design a hybrid filter from the two existing filters for removal of noise in uniform localitys from the image.3. BRIEF LITERATURE SURVEYUntil now, some(prenominal) researches and case studies have been reported about riffle denoising .Yuan Gao and Zhengyao Bai 2 proposed a speckle lessening method which is based o n curvelet domain in SAR images. In this technique, curvelet vary is mapped with ripple filtering. In the first step, multiplicative noise is converted in to additive noise. Second step is to compute the threshold, by using soft and to a great extent thresholding curvelet coefficients are thresholded. Lastly, opposite CT and exponential function translate are applied to reconstruct the original image. This shows that this method is bust than other filtering techniques.S.Sudha et al. 3 proposed a tool for noise removal in echography images. The comparison shows that the proposed technique provides better results than other existing techniques.Manish Goyal and Gianetan Singh Sekhon 4 applied riffle based hybrid thresholding techniques firstly applied the statistical technique and then filtering based on bayes threshold. Then results are calculated which is followed by applying soft thresholding. The experimental results show that this filter gives better results.Alka Vishwa, Shil pa Sharma 5 created a ingenuous context-based model for the selection of threshold within a rippling denoising model. Estimations of the local anesthetic variance with appropriate weights are used for thresholding. Although, it is seen that the denoised image, during removal of a existent amount of noise also suffers practically node gradation in the sharpness and details. The experimental result shows that this proposed method yields significantly improved visual quality and also better PSNR in comparison with the other techniques for the denoising.Rohit Verma,Jahid Ali 6 has discussed antithetical types of noise that can creep in image during acquisition. In the atomic number 16 section various filtering techniques are presented that can be used for denoising the digital image. Experimental results found that the BM3D along with average filters gave better results and the averaging and minimum filters performed the worst. BM3D is take up choice of removing Salt and pepper n oise. In all other cases median filter is considered more suit suitable.K.Bala Prakash ,R.Venu Babu and Venu Gopal 7 proposed a cutting technique which is one by one select the filter for different types of images. In this technique a new independent filter testament automatically check which filter gives better results in images,. The results are computed using different parameters. The experimental results shows that proposed technique gives better results than other techniques.Mashaly et al. 8 introduced a new technique which is based on geo geomorphological operations. In this paper Synthetic aperture radar images are used. In this morphological operations are applied to remove the speckle noise reduction and the results are compared with different filtering techniques such as adaptive and non adaptive filters.Adib Akl and Charles Yaacoub 9 proposed a method for image denoising that uses wavelet denoising and an adaptive form of the Kuan filter that results in a significant removal of speckle noise. The results are tested in respect of the peak signal to noise ratio, equivalent no of looks and coefficient of correlation.Udomhunskal and Wongsita 10 presented a method for Ultrasonicspeckledenoisingusingthe hybrid technique which is based on wavelet metamorphose and wiener filter to reduce thespecklenoisewhile preserving the details. In this method, firstly apply the 2D discrete wavelet convert for the noisy image. Then, the wiener filter isapplied to individually detail subband. The results found that this method removes the ultrasonicspeckle more efficiently.4. GAPS IN STUDY5. difficulty FORMULATIONThe basic idea of this model is the estimation of the uncorrupted image from the noisy image or distorted image known as image denoising. To remove noisy distortions, there are various methods to attend to restore an image. Choosing the best method plays a very important fibre for getting the desired image. There are various existing techniques to remo ve the Speckle Noise Reduction but due to some drawbacks these techniques cannot remove Speckle Noise efficiently. The major drawbacks of the existing filters areThe adaptive filters like Lee filter, Kuan filter and Frost filter are not able to perform a full removal of Speckle without losing any edges because they hope on local statistical data and this Statistical data link up to the filtered pixel value and this data depends upon the filter window over an area.As these existing filters are very much sensitive to the window check and Window Size. If the Window Shape is very much larger than over smoothing will occurs. As window size is smaller than the Smoothing Capability of the Window will decrease.So, to overcome these limitations we proposed a new hybrid technique that combines Wavelet based denoising and anisotropic diffusion filter. As Wavelet is Frame based Approach, it does not dependent on Space or Time. Wavelet also provides better Resolution. In Anisotropic diffusio n filter, it is based on partial(p) differential equation. It does not depends upon the window size but, on Mean square Error approach. So it provides better filtering capability and enhances the edges. By applying these techniques the efficiency of the organization is increased and noise is reduced to the greater extent.6.METHODOLOGYWavelet denoising is a current approach to denoising which is not based on local statistical data. The wavelet denoising is a frame based approach. In this approach, a wavelet transform is applied on the image, followed by thresholding method. In the end, an inverse wavelet transform is applied to the image for lengthening the image components after they were reduced during wavelet decomposition.A speckled image can be expressed in the form ofk=m*nWhere m is the original image and the n is noise with mean and unknown variance. The following diagram explains the DWT-denoising.Wavelet-based denoising consists ofApplying the distinct Wavelet Transform (DWT) to the noisy image k,Thresholding the detail coefficients, andFinally applying inverse discrete wavelet transform (IDWT) technique on the threshold coefficients to dominate an estimation of the original image kas shown in Figure1.Figure1. Block diagram of wavelet denoisingTheimage k is inserted in the filter in the logarithmic form i.e. k=m+n. After wavelet transform W is applied, it results in W(k). W(k) undergoes the thresholding process which results in T(W(k)) which is represented asfwin the figure 1.Finally, the de-speckled image is overstretched using the inverse transform W-1.Anisotropic diffusion filterIn anisotropic diffusion the main method is to smoothen within the function in preference to the smoothening crossways the edges. Without bias due to the filter window shape and size the partial differential equation based removal approach allows the generation of image scales consisting of set of filtered image. So, anisotropic diffusion is adaptive and does not uti lize the hard thresholds to alter performance in homogeneous areas or in region near edges and small features. This is quite edge sensitive. In the anisotropic diffusion filter, conduction coefficient is taken to be one within condition region it is zero near the edges. Equation for anisotropic diffusion is as givenI (x, 0) = =div (F) + Here I is input image, is the initial image, div (F) is diffusion shuffle and is entire coefficientOverview of FrameworkFirst load the image using a MATLAB processing tool box and add speckle noise into in the image which can be seen in the form black and egg white dots. After image is loaded it will pass finished wavelet denoising filter where log transformation is applied so as to decrease the multiplicative nature of the image by making it additive for embossment the removal process.Here Bayes Shrink Threshold is used for thresholding process. The Bayesian shrinking contains a soft-threshold and minimizes the Bayesian risk. Shrink threshold is calculated by considering a Generalized Gaussian Distribution. After that an Inverse wavelet transform will be applied on the threshold output, so as to extract the image. After applying the Wavelet Transform, hybrid of the anisotropic filter and wavelet will be formed, sothat it provides better results than simple Wavelet denoising techniques. After the image passes through the filter, results will be evaluated in terms of peak signal to noise ratio, Coefficient of correlation and equivalent No of looks. These results will show that the hybrid model gives better results than other existing techniques.Figure 2.Basic flowchart depicting the despeckling of an image using hybrid model.7. FACILITIES REQUIRED FOR PROPOSED WORKThe various hardware and software system facilities of the proposed model are given as under Hardware RequirementsIntel affectionateness CPU3 GB RAMWindows serverSoftware RequirementsMATLAB Software(R2012a)32 bit (win32)8. PROPOSED PLACE OF WORKDepartment of C omputer Science applied science, Chandigarh Engineering College, Landran Mohali, IndiaREFERENCES

Governments On Preventing Air Pollution In Colombo Environmental Sciences Essay

Governments On Preventing line of products befoulment In capital of Sri Lanka surroundingsal Sciences demonstrate business line taint is the strawman in the outdoor(prenominal) line of 1 or much than contaminants much(prenominal) as disperse, fumes, feature, mist, odour, grass, or vapour in quantities and of char pieceeristics and duration such as to be injurious to merciful, plant, or brute life or to property, or to interfere unreasonably with the comfortable pleasure of life and property.1. duck soup is the genuinely basic need of all(prenominal) vivification organism. Air is essential to life on earth. All organisms require passably pure ventilate, and they can non survive without it. Air is considered safe when it contains no harmful dust and gases. Air contaminant effects global warming, oz unmatchable depletion, acid rain and several(a) respiratory illnesses.2. The transmit defilement has worsened in virtu onlyy self-aggrandising cities in the d evelop world. In Sri Lanka, capital of Sri Lanka urban center is facing this job cod to the gamyly plusd fomite sacking and few modernistic(prenominal) environmental issues. The high density of state and industrialization is the opposite close bitant environmental issues that own displace the attention of policymakers, administrators, and environmentalists in the new-fangled past. Most countries in the world atomic number 18 trying to give a solution to breeze taint in their countries by revising their policies, rules and regulations. un little Sri Lanka is still non interpreted firm action to revise the environmental policies, rules and regulations to prevent strain Pollution.3. capital of Sri Lanka is the main commercial and business hub of Sri Lanka and as a result, many people be arrived into the metropolis daily. The central district, which comprises of fort up and Pettah, provides more than 100,000 jobs and is estimated to consecrate a day term quant ify tribe of more than 650,000. The greater capital of Sri Lanka atomic number 18a contains more than 4 one million million million people or 26% of the countrys population, but covers only 5.6% of the entire land area. Outside the city, Katunayake Bandaranaike internationalist Airport and the Free Trade Zone further increase employment congestion in Colombo. As the most important commercial and administrative center, Colombo attracts the maximum number of fomites and individuals. accordingly it is highly vulnerable to wellness hazards due to vehicle emissions.4. Clean, dry telephone circuit contains 78.09% north by hatful and 20.94% oxygen. The remaining 0.97% is composed of a gaseous mixture of degree Celsius dioxide, helium, argon, krypton, azotic oxide and xenon, as well as very elflike amounts of some opposite organic and inorganic gases whose amount in the melody vary with time and set up. Various amounts of contaminants continuously enter the atmosphere with both inhering and man-made processes that exist upon the earth. Man as a pollutant has labelled that great deal of these substances which interacts with the environment to ca utilise toxicity, malady, aesthetic distress, physiological effects or environmental decay.5. The human activities are the special cause of pollution and as the population increases, the attendant pollution problems also raise proportionately. The outset significant diversity in humans effect of temper came with his discovery of turn on. Prehistoric human built a fire in his cave for cooking, heating and to sum light. The problem of place pollution came into existence at this time.OBJECTIVES5. General Objective. To die the responsibility of the Government and its governance towards the reducing of linage pollution in Colombo urban center and give recommendations to prevent Air pollution in Colombo City.6. Specific Objectives. The specific objectives of the research are as follows.a. To hear th e various Air pollutants.b. To examine the impact of the propagate pollution.c. To examine the actions taken by the Government and its authorities to prevent Air Pollution in Colombo City.d. To analyze and suggest the recommendations for carrying into actions establish on the findings of the study.CHAPTER 02 modeOLOGY statement OF PROBLEM1. The mail pollution in main cities in underdeveloped countries is one of the leading critical environment problems. The health impact of the line of merchandise pollution looks likely to be greater in the capital of Sri Lanka. Therefore the responsibility of the presidency and its authorities is to protect atmosphere and minimize the air pollution in the country.2. still, the actions taken on air guard in Colombo are inadequate and not suit the present day context. Therefore, this paper entrust identify the effects of air pollution in Colombo and analyze the impact of air pollution in Colombo City. Further this paper will analyse the ef fectiveness of existing sub judice remedies in preventing air pollution.HYPOTHESIS3. Actions taken by the Government and its authorities to prevent air pollution in Colombo City are inadequate.SCOPE OF THE STUDY4. This study will explore the air pollution in Colombo city and the responsibility of the Government and its authorities and how air pollution can undermine the goals of development.5. Furthermore, policies that are necessary on stinting basis can deliver significant environmental benefits. except, these policies are not enough to ensure urban air protection. Therefore the dependable reality organizations and policies for urban air protection are very essential. The policies adapted by the Sri Lankan government over the past two decades to rely more on development. However, inbred air protection is an area which government must continue a central role.6. Examine the effects of air pollution in Colombo and validity and practicability of the existing environmental policie s and regulations in Sri Lanka.METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION7. The capital winding study shows that the Colombo city would be the area where the air pollution can be seen predominantly. The both primary and thirdhand data will collect regarding the subject of air pollution in Colombo City from the available resources like publications, books and internet electronic network sites.8. The main decisive factor is to look at this problem in government and citizens perspectives. Thus, the views of government authorities and citizens will seek to buy off their expectations of the want strategies and policies. Scholars on the subject and professionals on this subject will be interviewed through discussions. A predetermined questionnaire will be distributed among the selected citizens in Colombo city to absorb their views.LIMITATIONS9. This research study was done within three months of plosive and with limited time. Hence it was difficult to cover all the pollution be areas in Colombo a rea. Therefore the calculation might be showed small difference if compare with other research. It also faced the difficulty of get genuine answers from the community.CHAPTER 03AIR taintATMOSPHERE1. The atmosphere surrounds the earth. It is composed of gas molecules held close to the earths surface by gravitation. It consists of Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (20%), coke dioxide (0.03%) and small amounts of inert gases such as argon, neon, and krypton. It also consist changing amounts of water. pitter-patter participles called as particulate matters are also consist with varying amounts.2. The earths current atmosphere consists of several moulds as Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. The add up composition of the atmosphere varies little from place to place, except for its moisture contents. The variation of moisture condition is a very important natural condition affecting plant growth. Air temperature is another important environmental condition that profoundl y affects both plant and fleshly life. Air is in constant motion and its movement is creates wind.3. Some of the atmospheric gases have the capacity to absorb heat. These are called Green House Gasses. one C Dioxide, Water vapour and Ozone are three of the naturally make color house gasses in the atmosphere. Green house gasses are liable for maintaining the direct of temperature of the earth. If the quantity of these gasses increases in the atmosphere thence additional heat will be trapped and the earths atmosphere will get warmer. These gasses have been increase in the atmosphere in recent years in the earth.4. In the normal condition the atmosphere contains a layer of ozone in the atmosphere. This layer traps a part of Ultra violet rays and X-Rays, reducing the amount of these poisonous rays reach to the earth. However, the introduction of Chlorofluoro carbon (chlorofluorocarbon) in to the atmosphere has been shown to damage the ozone layer. CFC is chemical that have been utilise for many years in aerosol, air conditioning and in refrigeration.AIR POLLUTION5. Air Pollution is the presence in the atmosphere of one or more foreign materials such as dust, fumes, gases, mist or smoke in quantities and in durations which are harmful to human, plant or animal life or to properties. A gas like CO2 which is a normal element of the atmosphere can in certain conditions, be cum a pollutant, when its concentrations increase to levels that jeopardise the well-being of breathing things or disrupt physical or biological processes.6. Air pollution is as old as civilization itself. The first air pollution incident took place, when early humans made fire in poorly ventilated or set fire to a dry forest. But it was the growth of industries after the industrial revolution that became the largest locomotive engine of air pollution first in Britain, Europe, nary(prenominal)th America and then spread to the other places of the World.7. Damage to the clean air has thre e potential costs to present and future human welfare. The Health of Human whitethorn be harmed. Also the economic productivity whitethorn be decrease. In addition, the pleasure or satisfaction entertained from an unspoiled natural air may be lost. Since spoiled urban air problem vary across countries and with the stage of industrialization, each country required to assess its own priorities carefully. Emissions from witch industriousness and population growth impose serious costs for health condition and productivity in Sri Lanka.AIR POLLUTANTSTYPES OF AIR POLLUTANTS8. Basically air pollution can be classified as primary and secondary parts. Primary pollutants get into atmosphere at one time by various processes. study part of this is added to the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil fuels in please vehicles and by industries. Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide, Sulphur oxide and Hydrocarbons are some physical exertions for primary air pollutants. Secondary air pollutants are those stamped in the air through various chemical reactions. Some of the primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions once they are in the atmosphere and suffer secondary pollutants. For an f ashion model Sulphur oxides will react with atmospheric water vapour and produce acids. This centering acid rain is produced and it leads to disruption of various eco- schemas. Another example is the smog produced by the action of sunlight on automobile annihilate emitted in to the atmosphere.9. Air pollutants can be either in the form of gases or in the form of particles. Some of the common pollutants are Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur oxides, due north oxides, methane and ozone. Particulate pollutants implicate dust, fume, mist, smoke and sprays.10. Dust particles get in to the air when materials are being handled or processed. Dust from cement, combust, and bricks and cut dust from wood working are few examples of such particulate pollutants. Fumes and mist are not many solid particl es, make in the atmosphere due to condensation of vapours by sublimation or chemical reaction processes. Smoke particle are formed as a result of incomplete burning of carbonaceous materials. Liquid particles referred to as spray are formed by the atomization of a produce liquid.SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS11. Some pollutants are formed and emitted by natural processes. Pollen grains from flowers, smoke particles from forest fires, volcanic eruptions and wind blown dust are examples of particulates of natural origin. There are also naturally occurring gasses such as nitrogen oxide and methane.12. Man made sources of pollutants can be considered under stationary combustion processes transportation, industrial and the agricultural processes.13. When fuel such as oil or coal used in power plants, gasses and particulate pollutants are emitted in to air. These pollutants consist of a mixture of particles such as fly ash and smoke and gasses such as the oxides of entropy and nitrogen. Ca rbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are also produced in combustion process.14. In transportation, particularly from vehicles, the pollutants are emitted in to the air. These pollutants comprise particulates such as smoke, lead and gasses like carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons. These pollutants are high in concentration around trade light junctions in the cities such as Colombo.15. In industrial processes, depending on the type of energy used, a wide range of pollutants are emitted. If the industry burns oil as its energy source, smoke, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides will be emitted to the air.16. In Sri Lanka a large lot of the energy consumed comes from fuel wood. Burning of fuel wood, used for industrial purposes or domestic use, also produces pollutants. Some agricultural activities such as snip dusting add particulate pollutants to the atmosphere. Further, the burning of forests for chena cultivation can be gr oup in to this category.17. Vehicle Emission Increased vehicle emission in Sri Lanka mainly Colombo is the most significant environmental issue that has drawn the concentration of policymakers, administrators, and environmentalists in the recent past. Various studies undertaken by regulatory agencies and researchers understandably indicate that inefficient combustion of petroleum in motor vehicles is the primary cause of growing air pollution in Colombo city. deficiency of information on economic and environmental costs of vehicle emission and its improvement and prevention have inhibited public response and enforcement, and hinder the implementation of existing laws, and the development of further regulations. The worst prevalent air pollutants emitted from vehicles comprise particulate government issue (PM), lead (Pb), non-methane volatile organic components (NMVOC), nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and carbon monoxide (CO). Of these, particulate matter and lead are the most detrimental components of vehicle exhaust that affect the environment and human beings.18. aside from pollutants emitted by petrol-driven vehicles, the amount of exhaust from diesel motor-driven vehicles is large and therefore a matter of major public concern due to its undesirable environmental effects. However diesel-engine exhaust contains less toxic gases, it has a much higher particulate matter consideration than petrol-engine exhaust. In Sri Lanka, the observed levels of TSP, SO2, O3, and lead are importantly higher than air quality standards recommended by the World Health boldness (WHO) and the Central Environmental bureau (CEA) in Sri Lanka. This clearly reveals the special nature of the vehicle emission problem in the country which is directly joined with a wide range of factors such as composition and increase in number of vehicles, price structure of fuel, lack of work management, use of low-quality fuel, and lack of alternative fuels.20. Combustion Engine Exhaust Cars, busses, trucks, jet airplanes and other combustion engine vehicles cause air pollution. The exhaust from these contains carbon monoxide, nitric oxide and gaseous oxide. This type of air pollution creates smog which causes respiratory health problems and holes in the ozone layer, which increases the exposure to the harmful rays of the sun.25. Mills and plants Mills and plants, such as paper mills, power plants, chemical plants, iron mills, steel mills, cement plants and asphalt plants, release emissions into the atmosphere causing air pollution21. Factories Factories, homes and power station burn fossil fuels, which cause air pollution. The burning of oil and coal also contributes to smog. This air pollution destroys plants, damages buildings and creates oxidation on iron.22. vegetable oil Petroleum refineries such as Sapugaskanda release hydrocarbons and various particulates that pollute the atmosphere.23. Pesticides Pesticides used to destroy indoor and outdoor pes ts, insecticides used to destroy insects and herbicides use to push down weeds all cause air pollution.26. Indoor Air Pollution This happens when there is insufficient ventilation to disburse the toxic fumes from new carpet, paint and/or cleaning chemicals that are used indoors.CHAPTER 04 advertS OF AIR POLLUTION1. Several studies conducted in Sri Lankan cities show that air pollution leads to reduced health and quality of life, damage to property, and economic losses. PM10-related health damage in the City of Colombo is about Rs. 26.0 billion per annum and in the case of PM2.5 it is about Rs. 774 million per annum. This is according to a study by Chandrasiri,S. et. al. (2004) which quantified the health effects of PM2.5 from auto-diesel emissions. ground on the above estimates, the researchers calculated the cost per ton of auto diesel emissions in Colombo. These estimates of the health damage values for PM10 in Colombo come quite close to previous estimates in these studies2. An other study on the Exposure to Aerosol Pollution and Reported Respiratory Symptoms Among City Dwellers by Perera, G.B.S., Emmanuel, R., Premasiri, H.D.S., (2006) shows that urban dwellers report higher preponderance of respiratory illnesses since they spend more on the roadsides, have higher exposure and also have all the common respiratory symptoms. Comparison of most common causes of mortality and morbidity data shows that although non-air pollution-related causes remain the primary cause for mortality, air pollution is a significant contributor to morbidity.3. The average property damage due to urban air pollution in Colombo is estimated at Rs. 12677 (US$ 126) per household per year. The average willingness to pay to evacuate property damage from urban air pollution is at Rs. 520 (US$ 5.20) per household per year. If an Air tint Improvement Fund were to be established, the public would be willing to pay Rs.15460 (US$ 154) per household per year.THE HEALTH IMPACT OF THE AIR POL LUTION4. Air pollution is increasingly recognized as a threat to the health of people in mainly developing countries. The World Health Organization states that 2.4 million people die every year from causes directly attributable to air pollution. A study by the University of Birmingham has found a strong co-relation amongst pneumonia related deaths and air pollution from motor vehicles. More Worldwide deaths per year are linked to air pollution than to road traffic accidents. The causes of air pollution related deaths include aggravated asthma, emphysema, bronchitis, lung diseases and respiratory problems.5. The health effects caused by air pollutants may range from subtle biochemical and physiological changes to difficulty in breathing, cough uping, wheezing, and innervation of existing respiratory and cardiac conditions.6. These effects can result in increased medication use, increased doctor or emergency room visits, more hospitalizing and premature deaths. The human health ef fects of poor air quality are far reaching, but principally affect the bodys respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Individual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure, the individuals health status and genetics..respiratory HEALTH7. The effects of air pollution on health of residents in an industrial areas in Colombo city using a cross-sectional design and reported that the adult population living in the industrial area was more likely to have unexplained episodic cough and a significant reduction in expiratory flow as compared to the adult population living in a non-industrial area. The younger population ( 12 years) living in the industrial area were times more likely to have rhinitis as compared to the younger population living in the non-industrial area.8. School children are another group exposed to high levels of pollutants exaggerated by overcrowding of major schools in cities, especially in Colomb o. The prevalence of respiratory symptoms among school children attending a school in Colombo situated close to a busy main road was significantly higher than that of children attending a school situated in a rural area.9. Based on data of the Colombo Fort supervise station, episodes of bronchitis, emphysema and other chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases had a strong tie-up with PM10 levels. Nearly 20% of asthma patients who visited the Lady Ridgeway Hospital for Children in Colombo in 2005 could be attributed to exposure to PM10 in Colombo based on the health impact assessment software developed by WHO. Although the location of the Colombo Fort monitoring station may not represent the entire area of study population, this study provides evidence for implementation of early mitigation strategies.10. Air pollutants were measured using passive samplers in Mount Lavinia, a metropolitan area b coordinateing Colombo, to measure the 24-hour average levels among city dwellers engaged i n different occupation. Bus drivers were exposed to more NO2 and SO2 as compared to three-wheeler drivers, shop keepers and outdoor vendors. The highest prevalence of respiratory symptoms was reported among bus drivers. tear LEAD LEVELS11. Following the introduction of unleaded gasoline, atmospheric lead levels reduced by 81.5%, 82% and 84% in three locations in Colombo measured blood lead levels of a sample of children living dear(p) a traffic congested junction in Colombo in 1998 and then one year after the introduction of unleaded gasoline. In 1998, 6% of children had blood lead levels above 10 g/dL in 2003, not a single child had a blood lead level 10 g/dl (range 1.67 g/dl to 9.7 g/dl).12. The mean blood lead levels in traffic and non-traffic policemen were 7.47 g/dl and 7.06 g/dl, respectively. Abdominal discomfort, tremor and hypertension were higher in traffic policemen as compared to non-traffic policemen, although the differences were not significant. There may be exposure misclassification as non-traffic policemen are duty bound to check over traffic during busy hours. asthma attack13. Low air quality, from traffic pollution or high ozone levels, has been repeatedly associated with increased asthma morbidity. Recent studies show a relationship between exposure to air pollutants (e.g. from traffic) and childhood asthma. This research finds that both the occurrence of the disease and exacerbation of childhood asthma are affected by outdoor air pollutants.LUNG CANCER14. Studies of the American Cancer Society cohort directly link the exposure to particulate matter with lung crab louse. For example, if the concentration of particles in the air increases by only 1%, the risk of developing a lung cancer increases by 14%. Further, it has been established that particle size matters, as ultrafine particles go in further into the lungs.15. The majority of the population (more than 50%) was between the ages of 41-50 years and staminate the majority of the c ases were directly exposed to tobacco smoke (48%). There was an association between smoking and lung cancer but not with biomass fuels use.THE ACTIONS TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT AND ITS AUTHORITIES TO PREVENT AIR POLLUTION IN capital of Sri Lanka CITY16. Banning of importation of two-stroke engine three- wheelers One of the main accomplishments in improving air quality in Sri Lanka is Banning of importation of two-stroke engine three- wheelers since 2006. The Government banned the importation of two-stroke petrol three-wheelers from 1 January 2008 and prohibited the import of full engine, engine blocks and cylinder heads after 2011 in order to avoid the local assembly of two-stroke engines.17. Implementation of vehicle emission interrogation platform Sri Lanka is in the process of implementing the Vehicle Emission Testing program. The Program was launched on 15 July 2008. Several agencies play an important part in its implementation. The Ministry of Environment and Natural preferenc es developed the emission standards the Department of tug Traffic is the nominate implementing agency of the program. This program is designed as a public-private partnership and is a centralizedSystem with two large private sector companies promise to conduct the vehicle emission tests. Two private sector companies have been selected to set up testing centers in all the main cities of Sri Lanka. The testing centers in the main cities are already in place.18. Under the Program, vehicle proprietors must secure an emission certificate because it is a necessity to have got the annual revenue license in Sri Lanka. After the vehicle is tested, the owner of the vehicle gets an emission certificate which states the emission levels of the vehicle. If the vehicle meets the standards, the owner of the vehicle gets a pass certificate if he fails, he has to repair the vehicle and go back to the testing center for a re-test.19. Amendment of theme ambient Air Quality Standards Considering the latest revised WHO guideline values, Sri Lankan authorities reviewed the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and incorporated PM10 and PM2.5. Sri Lanka set the interim targets 2 as given in the Global update of WHO Air Quality Guideline in 2005.20. Preparation of National Action Plan for Air Quality Management (Clean Air 2015) Clean Air Sri Lanka and the Air Resource Management Center of the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources Development have brisk the Clean Air 2015 action plan to manage the air pollution in Sri Lanka. The main areas under the action plan have been determine as priorities, action plans fain and work started for each Monitoring Emissions of force play Plants and High Polluting Industries, Monitoring and Reducing Vehicle Emissions, Provisions of Cleaner give notices for Motor Vehicles, Prepare and Maintain Emissions Inventory, Monitoring Ambient Air Quality, Enhance man Awareness and carry out health impact assessments and Providing an Indoor Air Pollution Management Programme.21. Strategic Plan for Traffic Management in great Colombo Area (2008-2010)The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka has ordered the expression and implementation of the Strategic Plan for Traffic Management in Greater Colombo Area. Therefore, the National Transport Commission of the Ministry of Transport has conducted wider discussion with stakeholders and prepared an action plan. This action plan includes several interventions such as the conceptuality of an urban transport policy, set up of an urban traffic organise mechanism, operation of a Bus Rapid Transit (BRT), operation of at least two new multimodal terminals and introduction of the advance traffic control system etc., for completion by 2010.CHAPTER 05ANALYSISACTS, RULES AND REGULATIONS1. In the past in Sri Lanka there were a number of statues with scattered provisions pertaining to Environmental protection and Pollution control. Following are the Acts and regulations published in Sri Lanka in orde r to prevent air pollution.ACTSNational Environmental Act No. 47 of 1980National Environmental (Amendment) Act, No. 56 of 1988National Environmental (Amendment) Act, No. 53 of 2000REGULATIONS PUBLISHED UNDER THE NEAMotor Traffic (emission control) Regulation candid turn 817/6 go out 3rd May 1994.Ozone Depleting substances and Natural Environmental (Ambient Air Quality) Regulations 1994. Gazette posting identification number 850/4 dated 20th celestial latitude 1994.Amendment to National Environment (ambient air quality) Regulation 1994. Gazette Notification tote up 1562/22 dated 15th August 2008.Amendment to Gazette Notification Number 1295/11 dated 30th June 2003.Gazette Notification Number 1557/14 dated 19th July 2008.Amended Regulations (Air Emission, Fuel and Vehicle Importation standards) Gazette Notification Number 1137/35 dated 23rd June 2000.National Environmental (Air Emissions, Fuel HYPERLINK http//www.cea.lk/pdf/reg1295-11.pdfHYPERLINK http//www.cea.lk/pdf/reg1295-11 .pdf Vehicle Importation standards) Amended Regulations. Gazette Notification Number 1295/11 dated 30th June 2003.2. When compare with many other South Asian countries, Sri Lanka has the best environmental protection regulations. However the enforcement is very unsatisfactory. Sri Lanka has a good National Environmental Act and Environmental Impact Assessment process. However its implementation is rather weak.3. As an example we can take the vehicle emission test of Sri Lanka. As per the questionnaire distributed among the vehicle drivers in Colombo city it is found that the emission test certificate can be obtain without required standard of the vehicle. The drivers confirmed that they have experience for such incidents.4. Further, during the research it was found that the only one monitoring site in Colombo is not in a position to check the every pollutant due to the system failure since April 2010. CEA hasnt taken any action to reactivate the system up to now. This shows the leas t priority given by the government towards the air pollutionWEAKNESSES OF ACTIONS TAKEN FOR AIR PROTECTION IN COLOMBO BY THE GOVERNMENT5. . The National environmental act of Sri Lanka approved in 1980 and it was again amended in 1988 and 2000. For the last 30 years amendments were not in a considerable frame and there are many lapses in the amendments. This shows the least priority given by the ruled governments at that time towards the air pollution. The citizens who were participated in this research also clearly indicated this in the questionnaires.2. When considering the countries, which achieved less air pollution percentage, there were the separate air pollution act and activating it in a proper manner. A separate laterality was established to facilitate in administrational functions. Sri Lanka is still relying on the common environmental act. Due to the prevailing situation in Sri Lanka, it is very essential to have a separate act with special laws to reduce the air polluti on in the country as well as the Colombo city.3. The hierarchy of the Central Environment Authority of Sri Lanka are appointed by HE the president in consultation with the environmental minister of the ruling government. Therefore, a question emerged regarding the impartiality of the members of Central Environmental Authority. All the decisions made by the government may be approved by the CEA in this nature.4. Authority of issuing licence and approving projects had been granted to the minister of environment by the amendment to the NEA in year 2000. As a result of this amendment the minister has repair authority to activate any harmful project to the environment if the government required it. Further this amendment has increased the validity time of the licence for the projects from one year to three years. The suspension and cancellation the licence, given to the minister from this amendment. If the minister verify it, the owner can continue his project without any interference .5. The prior way of urban air pollution is the use of motor vehicles.